Winter barley is one of the leading cereals that plays an important role in ensuring food and feed security. Its popularity is due to its early maturity, high yields, drought tolerance and the possibility of efficient use of the post-harvest period.
However, to achieve stable and high yields of this crop, a number of agronomic and biological features must be taken into account. Successful winter barley cultivation largely depends on the choice of variety, sowing dates, fertilisation system, disease and pest protection, and crop rotation.
This article discusses the key factors that influence the growth and development of winter barley and provides practical recommendations for farmers and agronomists on how to optimise its cultivation technologies in modern farming.
Contents
Characteristics and varieties of winter barley
Winter barley is an annual cereal crop characterised by early maturity, high yields and a wide range of uses. It reaches a height of up to 90 cm and forms a dense ear with three spikelets, the fruits of which are protected by a tough husk. This husk is removed during processing, especially in the production of cereals and flour.
Winter barley is primarily used for fodder, but it is also actively used in the food and brewing industries. The grain is used to make pearl barley and barley groats, barley flour, and is also used for malt production, making it strategically important for many industries. A significant portion of Ukraine’s barley is exported, which indicates stable demand on the international market.
Despite its potential, winter barley is inferior to wheat in terms of winter hardiness. Even a prolonged drop in temperatures to -12…-13°C without snow cover can cause crops to die.
Winter thaws, icing and spring cold snaps are the main threats to plants, especially in regions where climate fluctuations have become commonplace in recent years. For this reason, the area under winter barley in Ukraine is only about 10% of the total area of this crop. The best conditions for growing it are in the southern and central regions of the country with mild winters.
One of the key agronomic advantages of winter barley is its early maturity – it ripens 9-10 days earlier than winter wheat and 12-14 days earlier than spring barley. This allows us to clear the field earlier and prepare the soil for the next crop.
However, due to the rapid vernalisation stage (30-40 days), the plant is sensitive to temperature changes during this period. If development is accelerated in the autumn, barley can go into the tube before the onset of winter, which significantly reduces its frost resistance.
Barley is a self-pollinating crop with high bushiness and an average transpiration coefficient (300-450). It grows best on structural chernozems and chestnut soils with a neutral or slightly alkaline reaction (pH 6.0-7.5). Heavy, saline, acidic or flooded areas are not suitable for cultivation. To form 1 tonne of grain with the appropriate amount of straw, the plant consumes an average of 2.3-3.0 kg of nitrogen, 0.9-1.1 kg of phosphorus and 1.7-2.3 kg of potassium from the soil.
Winter barley breeding in Ukraine is actively developing, and today farmers can choose from a wide range of varieties adapted to different climatic zones and purposes:
Universal varieties are popular:
- Selena Star is a stable crop in the Steppe zone.
- Borisfen – high-yielding, drought-tolerant.
- Trudovnik – suitable for intensive technologies.
- Seim – resistant to lodging.
- Aborigen is a good fodder variety.
- Sinderella, Fantast, Kovcheg are high-yielding varieties with improved disease resistance.
Among the winter barley varieties grown specifically for brewing, Gladys, Avalon, Philadelphia, Scarlett, Kangoo, Corserto and Sunshine stand out. They are characterised by high quality malt, low protein content and stable grain moisture, which are important indicators for the production of quality beer.
Thanks to well-thought-out agricultural practices, the right choice of varieties and adherence to sowing dates (optimally from 1 to 20 October), winter barley shows high potential even in unstable climatic conditions.
Predecessors of barley
Choosing the right predecessor is one of the most important factors that determines the success of winter barley cultivation. The best crops are those that leave the field early and do not leave behind a significant amount of weeds. This creates optimal conditions for timely tillage and sowing of barley at the recommended time.
The most effective predecessors include silage corn, potatoes, legumes and buckwheat. Not only do they provide high-quality pre-sowing preparation of the field, but they often leave behind nitrogen-rich soil, which is especially important for high barley yields.
In arid steppe regions, winter barley sowing after clean or busy fallow is also effective. Such precursors help to accumulate and preserve moisture, which is critical in regions with a deficit of precipitation.
Interestingly, after good predecessors, under conditions of sufficient moisture, winter barley can yield less than winter wheat. However, after less favourable crops, on the contrary, it often surpasses it, which underlines the ability of winter barley to better adapt to deteriorated agro-phonics.
Crop rotation planning taking into account the predecessor not only affects the yield, but also helps to minimise the risks associated with unstable weather conditions.
Which areas are suitable for growing winter barley
Winter barley is a crop that is sensitive to climatic conditions, in particular to the course of winter. It does best in regions with mild winters, without prolonged or severe frosts. Barley’s winter hardiness is lower than that of wheat, so growing it in areas with extreme temperature fluctuations is risky.
Situations are particularly dangerous when, after thaws, the temperature drops sharply and an ice crust forms, which damages or completely destroys young sprouts. In such cases, farmers are forced to reseed their fields in the spring, which leads to a loss of time, resources and harvest.
The most favourable areas for growing winter barley are the southern and central regions of Ukraine, where winters are generally warmer and shorter. In these regions, the crop shows stable high yields, averaging 8-9 tonnes per hectare. In case of non-compliance with agrotechnology, incorrect seeding depth or unsuccessful placement in a climatically unsuitable area, yields can drop to 3 tonnes per hectare or even less.
Field selection is also critical. Clean or green manure pairs, as well as occupied pairs with cover crops, are considered the best. Winter barley grows well after legumes (peas, lentils), root crops (sugar beet), annual grasses, rape, buckwheat, sunflower (with increased fertilisation), as well as after corn, melons, flax or mustard. If barley is sown after wheat or other related cereals, it is important to take preventive measures against diseases common to both crops.
Successful winter barley cultivation requires not only appropriate technology, but also careful consideration of the region’s climatic characteristics, predecessors and soil type. It is the optimal combination of these factors that allows us to maximise the crop’s potential and achieve consistently high yields.
Technology for growing winter barley
Effective winter barley cultivation depends on the accuracy of all agronomic practices – from tillage to harvesting. The crop is sensitive to technology violations, so even small mistakes can significantly affect yields. Next, let’s take a look at what exactly ensures the effective cultivation of this crop in practice.
Sowing dates for winter barley
Winter barley is a crop that is sensitive to sowing dates, and not only its winter hardiness but also its yield depends on the right choice of sowing time. The main difficulty is that there is no single universal date for the entire territory of Ukraine – the optimal dates vary depending on the climatic conditions of a particular region.
The southern regions remain the most favourable for sowing winter barley, where winters are usually mild and predictable. In the western and northern regions, the situation is more complicated: there are frequent thaws followed by severe frosts. As a result, an ice crust forms on the field, which damages plants and often leads to the complete destruction of crops.
Despite the climate risks, the area under winter barley is constantly growing. Today, it is successfully grown not only in the Steppe, but also in the Forest-Steppe and even in Polissya. Each region has its own recommended sowing dates. For example:
- Transcarpathian region – after 20 September;
- Lviv region – from 1 to 10 October;
- Chernivtsi region – from 25 September to 5 October;
- Steppe zone – from the third decade of September.
On average, sowing takes place from mid-September to mid-October. If the autumn is warm and prolonged, it is possible to sow even in early November or, in some cases, in early December. However, if an early cold snap is forecast, the critical deadline is 20 October.
Too early sowing leads to overgrowth of plants: they can go into the tube before winter, which makes them extremely vulnerable to frost. In addition, such crops are more likely to be affected by pests (in particular, the Hessian fly) and fungal diseases. In turn, late sowing results in weak tillering and underdeveloped plants, which directly reduces future yields.
The optimal sowing time is when the plants can form 3-5 shoots before the onset of winter, but do not enter the tube phase. This development ensures the best possible wintering and high productivity in the spring.
Preparing the soil for winter barley
Successful winter barley cultivation begins even before sowing – with proper and timely tillage. The work begins immediately after harvesting the previous crop, as the main goal is to maximise the moisture stored in the soil, kill weeds and create ideal conditions for the formation of an even, compacted seedbed.
The first step is to shred and incorporate the post-harvest residues. For this purpose, disc harrows or heavy harrows are used. The next step is the main tillage – ploughing, discing or milling to a depth of 18-30 cm, depending on the soil type and the previous crop.
For example, after maize or sunflower, deeper ploughing is used with KUHN, Tur Vario or Opal ploughs. In fields after vetch-oat mixtures or legumes, the first step is disking (with Apav or Optimer peelers), and then the main tillage.
If no-till technology is used, sowing is carried out without preliminary ploughing, leaving the stubble on the field. This approach is possible if there are green manure crops that replace the plough. However, for malting barley, which has a weaker root system, the classic approach with thorough soil preparation is mandatory.
After the main cultivation, the area is levelled and tended until sowing. During this period, 2-3 pre-sowing treatments are carried out with units such as Kompactor, Salford RTS, Terramax, which destroy weeds, level the surface and prepare the sowing layer.
McFarlane needle harrows are particularly effective in areas with a large amount of crop residues, as they do not clog and ensure a uniform soil structure.
The soil for winter barley should be fertile, with good water and air permeability, and high levels of phosphorus, potassium, and calcium. The crop does not tolerate over-compaction, excessive moisture and lack of oxygen.
The sowing layer should contain particles with a diameter of 1-3 mm, and the compaction under the seedbed should reach a bulk density of 1.1-1.3 g/cm³. The permissible difference in the height of the ridges after cultivation is no more than 2 cm, as the levelled surface guarantees the accuracy of seed placement.
Seeding rates for winter barley
Seeding rate is one of the key factors that directly affects the density of seedlings, plant development and final yield of winter barley. On average, 3 to 5 million seeds are sown per hectare, which is approximately 206 kg/ha. However, the final decision always depends on the specific growing conditions, seed properties and technical parameters of the sowing equipment.
To accurately calculate the seeding rate, the laboratory germination rate, sowing suitability, row spacing and desired plant density are taken into account. For example, if you plan to plant 3 million plants per hectare and the germination rate is 90%, you need to sow a little more to compensate for possible losses.
On modern seeders, the rate is set either mechanically or with the help of electronic controllers that work by weight. To check the correctness of sowing, the number of seeds per linear metre is visually counted.
Special coefficients are also often used, depending on the row spacing (12.5 cm, 15 cm, 30 cm, 45 cm or 70 cm). They are calculated by dividing the area of one hectare (10,000 m²) by the corresponding row spacing, which allows you to quickly determine the number of rows and the required number of seeds for each.
In fertile soils with sufficient moisture, the seed rate can be reduced to 3 million seeds per hectare. In dry conditions, it is also recommended not to thicken the seed to avoid competition for water and nutrients. Instead, in case of late sowing, the rate is increased to 3.5 million seeds/ha to ensure the required number of shoots by winter.
Sowing too densely can have the opposite effect: the plants stretch out, weaken, and as a result, the number of productive stems decreases. Therefore, the seeding rate must be carefully calculated, taking into account all factors, from soil type to climatic conditions of the season.
Caring for winter barley crops
Comprehensive care of winter barley crops is a key element of cultivation technology that ensures good wintering, active plant development in spring and stable yields. Proper and timely implementation of agricultural practices helps to avoid the spread of diseases, pest damage and competition from weeds.
The first mandatory stage is spring harrowing. It is carried out immediately after the snow melts to break up the ice crust, loosen the soil surface, destroy the first weeds and remove dead leaves that can become a source of infection. Harrowing also helps to retain moisture in the soil and stimulates the development of the root system.
Fertilisation is another critical stage. In the early spring, during the vegetation recovery phase, before the plants go into the tube, they need macronutrient support. On average, about 26 kg of nitrogen, 11 kg of phosphorus and 24 kg of potassium are applied per tonne of grain. If legumes were the previous crop, the nitrogen rate can be halved due to the residual effect of nitrogen fixation.
Immediately after sowing, it is important to roll the soil so that the seeds are firmly in contact with the ground – this prevents wind damage and bird damage, and improves contact with moisture.
During the growing season, special attention is paid to protecting plants from pests, diseases and weeds. Herbicide treatments are carried out during the tillering phase, when the air temperature is 15-18°C. Preparations based on sodium or amine salts are effective against weeds. In case of signs of rust damage, fungicides are used, for example, with the active ingredient anilate.
Due to its low frost resistance, winter barley is particularly vulnerable to winter temperature fluctuations, excessive humidity and snowmelt. In such conditions, it is necessary to ensure water drainage from the field, clean the surface of dead plant residues and combat the soil crust that forms after the thaw.
Fertilisation system for winter barley
Winter barley responds well to both organic and mineral fertilisers, and the effect can be seen not only directly but also through the after-effects of fertilisers applied to the previous crop.
If a field has been previously grown with a high level of fertilisation, residual nutrition is often sufficient for barley to start growing. However, to achieve high yields, a separate, well-planned fertilisation system for this particular crop is required.
Winter barley is fertilised in several stages. The first is the application of nitrogen fertilisers before sowing, which contributes to the formation of a strong root system and uniform germination. The second is the application of microelements during sowing, which stimulate plant development in the initial stages of growth. And the third and most important stage is nitrogen fertilisation during the growing season, especially in the tillering and heading phase, when the yield potential is being formed.
It is important to take into account soil conditions, predecessor, barley variety and seasonal weather conditions to determine the optimal doses and timing of fertiliser application. Balanced nutrition ensures not only active plant development, but also increases resistance to diseases and adverse weather factors.
Winter barley protection system
Winter barley is sensitive to harmful factors throughout the growing season. Without proper protection, yields can be reduced by up to 70%, as the crop is often affected by smut, rust, various types of spotting, and is also affected by pests and weeds. An effective protection system is based on the timely application of fungicides, herbicides, insecticides and growth regulators.
Fungicide protection is carried out at four key stages of crop development:
- The tillering phase – the use of fungicides at this stage helps to maintain an active leaf surface, which is responsible for the establishment of lateral shoots.
- The beginning of the earing stage – during this period, the ear is formed. Infections that reduce photosynthesis lead to the formation of weak and small-grained ears.
- Flag leaf stage – almost the entire leaf mass has already been formed, and its preservation allows the plant to fully nourish the kernel during filling.
- The earing stage is the last stage of treatment, which simultaneously protects both the leaves and the ear itself, prolonging the effect of previous fungicides until the waxy ripeness stage.
Growth regulators are applied at the beginning of the tube (VVSN 31-32), when the first internode rises more than 1 cm from the tillering node. This allows you to shorten the first internodes, strengthen the stem along the entire length and reduce the risk of lodging, which is critical for maintaining grain quality.
Herbicide protection is most effective up to the middle of tillering. During this period, both hormonal and sulfonylurea-based products can be used – however, the latter should be used with caution as they can affect the weight of 1000 grains. After the VVSN 30 to VVSN 37 phase, the crop enters a phase of relative dormancy, when it is undesirable to apply herbicides. The exception is the treatment after VVSN 37, when active ear formation begins.
Insecticidal protection is usually a lower priority, but in case of widespread pests (bread beetle, cicadas, scoops), treatment is mandatory. Pests not only damage the leaf surface, but also contribute to the spread of diseases.
If the level of infestation exceeds the economic damage threshold (EDT), insecticides should be used. Seed treatment is also important, as it provides basic protection in the early stages of growth.
Harvesting and storing the crop
Harvesting winter barley is a crucial stage that requires clear organisation and consideration of the crop’s technological characteristics. Unlike wheat, barley is more demanding in terms of threshing conditions: its grain is tightly held in the ear and is difficult to separate from the stiff straw, which makes it difficult for combines to operate. That is why harvesting needs to be approached with special care.
Winter barley ripens earlier than spring barley, usually in late June or early July, although in the southern regions of Ukraine the harvesting campaign can start much earlier. Its early maturity has made winter barley a profitable alternative to spring crops, especially in arid climates where spring crops often fail to deliver.
The crop is harvested when the grain is fully ripe by direct combining. It is extremely important to prevent the crop from standing overnight: in many varieties, the spike is fragile and becomes even more brittle over time.
If harvesting is delayed, the ears begin to bend and crumble during the reaper passage, which leads to significant grain losses. If the fields are not harvested on time, a one-stage harvest is used to minimise losses. In some cases, two-stage harvesting with separate combining is also possible.
To ensure the quality of the harvested crop, it is important to properly adjust the threshing and cleaning parts of the combine to reduce grain damage and straw residues in the crop. Immediately after harvesting, the grain is sent for cleaning and drying, especially if it is harvested in high humidity. Grain should be stored in dry, well-ventilated warehouses at the appropriate temperature to avoid germination, self-heating and pest damage.
Timely and high-quality harvesting of winter barley allows not only to preserve the harvest, but also to prepare the field for the next crop rotation cycle, effectively using the agro-climatic resources of the season.
